Tag Archives: quantum mechanics

Are Space and Time Quantized? – Do We Live In A Quantum Universe? – Part 2/3

April 6, 2014Categories, Physics, Universe MysteriesAre Space and Time Quantized, existence equation conjecture, louis del monte, quantum mechanics, quantum universe, unraveling the universe's mysteriesadmin

Next, let us consider space. Is space quantized? In previous posts, we discussed the theory that a vacuum, empty space, is like a witch’s cauldron bubbling with virtual particles. This theory dates back to Paul Dirac who, in 1930, postulated a vacuum is filled with electron-positron pairs (Dirac sea). Therefore, most quantum physicists would argue that a vacuum is a sea of virtual matter-antimatter particles. This means, even a vacuum (empty space) consists of quantums of energy.

Other forms of energy are in a vacuum. We will illustrate this with a simple question. Do you believe a true void (empty space) exists somewhere in the universe? We can create an excellent vacuum in the laboratory using a well-designed vacuum chamber hooked to state-of-the-art vacuum pumps. We can go deep into outer space. However, regardless of where we go, is it truly void? In addition to virtual particles in empty space, are the gravitational fields. (Viewing gravity as a field is a classical view of gravity. As discussed previously, gravity may mediate via a particle, termed the graviton. For the sake of simplicity, I will use classical phasing, and view gravity as a field.) The gravitational fields would be present in the vacuum chamber, and present even deep in space. Even if the vacuum chamber itself were deep in space, gravitational fields would be present within the chamber. Part of the gravitational field would come from the chamber itself. The rest of the gravitational field would come from the universe. The universe is made up of all types of matter, and the matter radiates a gravitational field infinitely into space. Everything pulls on everything in the universe. The adage, “Nature abhors a vacuum,” should read, “Nature abhors a void.” Voids do not exist in nature. Within each void is a form of energy. Even if it were possible to remove every particle, the void would contain virtual particles and gravitational fields. As said before, we have not found the graviton, the hypothetical massless particle that mediates gravity, but if you are willing to accept its existence, it is possible to argue that empty space consists of quantums of energy. It bubbles with virtual particles and gravitons.

We can posit another argument that space, itself, is quantized. We will start by asking a question. Is there an irreducible dimension to space similar to the irreducible elements of matter? The short answer is yes. It is the Planck length. We can define the Planck using three fundamental physical constants of the universe, namely the speed of light in a vacuum (c), Planck’s constant (h), and the gravitational constant (G). The scientific community views the Planck length as a fundamental of nature. It is approximately equal to 10^-36 meters (10^-36 is a one divided by a one with thirty-six zeros after it), smaller than anything we can measure. Physicists debate its meaning, and it remains an active area of theoretical research. Recent scientific thinking is that it is about the length of a “string” in string theory. Quantum physicists argue, based on the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, it is the smallest dimension of length that can theoretically exist.

Does all this argue that space consists of quantized energy? To my mind, it does.

First, it contains quantized matter-antimatter particles (Dirac sea).
Second, it contains gravitons (the hypothetical particle of gravity).
Third, and lastly, space has an irreducible dimension; a finite length termed the Planck length.

Thus far, we have made convincing arguments that mass and space consist of quantized energy. Next, let’s turn our attention to time. In previous posts, we discussed Planck time (~ 10^-43 seconds, which is a one divided by a one with forty-three zero after it). As stated in those posts, theoretically, Planck time is the smallest time frame we will ever be able to measure. In addition, Planck time, similar to the Planck length, is a fundamental feature of reality. We can define Plank time using the fundamental constants of the universe, similar to the methodology to define the Planck length. According to the laws of physics, we would be unable to measure “change” if the time interval were shorter that a Planck interval. In other words, the Planck interval is the shortest interval we humans are able to measure or even comprehend change to occur. This is compelling evidence that time, itself, may consist of quantums, with each quantum equal to a Planck interval. However, this does not make the case that time is quantized energy. To make that case, we will need to revisit the Existence Equation Conjecture discussed in previous posts:

KE_X₄ = -.3mc²

Where KE_X4is the energy associated with an object’s movement in time, m is mass and c is the speed of light in a vacuum.

The Existence Equation Conjecture implies that movement in time (or existence) requires negative energy. The equation, itself, relates energy to the mass (m) that is moving in time. However, in the last post (Part 1) we argued that all mass is reducible to elementary particles, which ultimately are equivalent to discrete packets of energy via Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence equation (E=mc²). This suggests the Existence Equation Conjecture implies that movement in time embodies a quantized energy element. Therefore, if we combine our concept of the Planck interval with the quantized energy nature of time implied by the Existence Equation Conjecture, we can argue that time is a form of quantized energy.

Source: Unraveling the Universe’s Mysteries (2012), Louis A. Del Monte

Image: iStockphoto (licensed)

Do We Live In A Quantum Universe? – Part 1/3

March 30, 2014Categories, Physics, Universe Mysteriesdiscrete nature of mass, louis del monte, quantum mechanics, quantum nature of mass, quantum nature of the universe, unraveling the universe's mysteriesadmin

The notion that all reality (mass, space, time, and energy) consists of discrete energy quantums is counterintuitive. For example, an electric current consists of individual electrons flowing in a wire. However, you do not notice your television flickering as the electrons move through the circuits. The light you read by consists of individual photons. Yet, your eyes do not sense individual photons reflected from the page. The point is that our senses perceive reality as a continuum, but this perception is an illusion. In the following, we will examine each element of reality one by one to understand its true nature. In this post, “Do We Live In A Quantum Universe? – Part 1/3,” we will start by exploring the qunatized nature of mass.

Mass—the sum of all its atoms.

We will start with mass. Any mass is nothing more than the sum of all its atoms. The atoms themselves consist of subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons, which consist of even more elementary particles, like quarks. (Quarks are considered the most elementary particles. I will not describe the six different types of quarks in detail, since it will unnecessary complicate this discussion.) The point is any mass reduces to atoms, which further reduces to subatomic particles. The atom is a symphony of these particles, embodying the fundamental forces (strong nuclear, weak nuclear, electromagnet, and gravity). Does all this consist of energy quantums? In the final analysis, it appears it does, including the fundamental forces themselves. How can this be true?

In the early part of the Twentieth Century, the theory of quantum mechanics was developed. It is able to predict and explain phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level, and generally views matter and energy as quantized (discrete particles or packets of energy). Quantum mechanics is one of modern science’s most successful theories. At the macro level, which is our everyday world, any mass is conceivably reducible to atoms, subatomic particles, and fundamental forces.

Science holds that the fundamental forces (strong nuclear, weak nuclear, electromagnet, and gravity) mediate (interact) via particles. For example, the electromagnetic force mediates via photons. We have verified the particle for all the fundamental forces, except gravity. A number of theoretical physicists believe a particle is associated with gravity, namely the graviton. The graviton is a hypothetical elementary massless particle that theoretical physicists believe is responsible for the effects of gravity. The problem is that all efforts to find the graviton have failed. This is an active area of research, and work continues to find the graviton, and to develop a quantum gravity theory. If we assume gravity mediates through a particle, the case is easily made via Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence equations (E = mc²) that all mass, as well as the fundamental forces, reduces to energy quantums.

Although, we are unable to prove conclusively that all masses, including the fundamental forces, consists of discrete energy packets, numerous scientists believe they are. This realization caused Albert Einstein great distress. He wrote in 1954, one year prior to his death, “I consider it quite possible that physics cannot be based on the field concept, i.e., on continuous structures. In that case, nothing remains of my entire castle in the air, gravitation theory included, [and of] the rest of modern physics.” Einstein, who grew up in the world of classical physics, was a product of his time. Classical physics utilizes the concept of fields to explain physical behavior. The fields of classical physics are a type of invisible force that influences physical behavior. For example, classical physics explains the repulsion of two positively charged particles due to an invisible repulsive field between them. Modern physics explains this repulsion due to the mediation of photons, which act as force carriers. The main point is that mass and the fundamental forces are ultimately reducible to discrete elements, which equate to discrete packets of energy (quantums).

In the next post, “Do We Live In A Quantum Universe? – Part 2/3,” we will explore the nature of space. We will address the question: Is space quantized?

Source: Unraveling the Universe’s Mysteries (2013), Louis A. Del Monte

Image: iStockPhoto (licensed)

The Quantum and Macro Level Follow the Same Natural Laws

December 11, 2013Categories, Physics, Universe MysteriesEinstein general theory of relativity, Einstein special theory of relativity, louis del monte, Quantum and Macro Level Follow the Same Natural Laws, Quantum entanglement, quantum mechanics, theory of everything, universe's mysteriesadmin

The two pillars of modern physics are quantum mechanics and Einstein’s special/general relativity. We generally use quantum mechanics to describe how reality behaves at the quantum level (i.e., the level of atoms and subatomic particles). In our everyday world, the macro level, we generally use Einstein’s special or general relativity to describe the behavior of reality. Thus, it appears we need two separate set of “laws” to describe reality, one for the quantum level and one for the macro level. In addition, quantum mechanics is incompatible with general relativity. This suggests that quantum mechanics may not apply at the macro level. However, in 2010, an important experiment suggested that quantum mechanics is applicable to the macro level.

What happened on December 2010? Scientists at the University of Santa Barbara, United States, published a paper “Quantum mechanics applies to the motion of macroscopic objects”. The University of Santa Barbara scientists made a clear demonstration that the theory of quantum mechanics applies to the mechanical movement of an object large enough to be seen with the naked eye. Now, before we go into the detail, just think about the implications and questions this raises if this proves to be true. Do macroscopic objects have a particle-wave duality? Can macroscopic objects be modeled using wave equations, like the Schrödinger equation? Will macroscopic reality behave, under the right circumstances, similar to microscopic reality? To approach an answer, let’s take a look at what the University of Santa Barbara scientists demonstrated.

Our story starts out with Dr. Markus Aspelmeyer, an Austrian quantum physicist, who performed an experiment in 2009 between a photon and a micromechanical resonator, which is a micromechanical system typically created in a silicon chip and sometimes an integrated circuit, which may or may not contain additional electronic integrated circuits. The micromechanical resonator can be caused to resonate, i.e. move up and down much like a plucked guitar string. The interesting part is Dr. Aspelmeyer was able to established an interaction between a photon and a micromechanical resonator, creating the so-called strong coupling (i.e. a strong and noticeable interaction), able to transfer quantum effects to the macroscopic world. This is the first recorded time in history that the quantum world communicated with the macro world.

So what happened at the University of Santa Barbara at 2010? Andrew Cleland and John Martinis at the University of California (UC), Santa Barbara, worked with Ph.D. student Aaron O’Connell. This team became the first to experimentally induce and measure quantum effect in the motion of a human made object. The work, released in March 2010, was voted by Science and AAAS (the publisher of Science Careers) as the 2010 Breakthrough of the Year “in recognition of the conceptual ground their experiment breaks, the ingenuity behind it and its many potential applications,” according to a AAAS press release.

What exactly did they do? They showed that a mechanical resonator (i.e. in this case a small metal strip that can vibrate freely), which was cooled to its ground state energy (ground state), works at the macro level. To understand how profound this is we need to understand the ground state. The ground state is the lowest fundamental level of energy of vibration a physical entity may have according to quantum mechanics. It is not zero energy, but close. A particle with zero energy would violate the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. We would know where it is and how fast it is going simultaneously! The act of putting a system in its ground state energy has never been done before. Their method was brilliant. They first built a mechanical resonator to the frequency of the microwave. Then, the resonator was physically connected to a superconducting qubit (i.e. a quantum system controlled with great precision, used in research of quantum computers). The set was then cooled to near absolute zero. But, how could they be sure that they were at the ground state. They used quantum qubit as a thermometer and demonstrated that the mechanical resonator contained no extra vibration. In other words, it had been cooled to a level equivalent to its ground state energy. At this point, the experiment is already in the history books, but wait an even larger punch line is coming.

The mechanical resonator is as close as possible to being perfectly still, i.e. the ground state. The scientists then added a single quantum of energy, a phonon, the smallest physical unit of mechanical vibration, thus the lowest possible level of excitement. What they observed next is astounding. When the mechanical resonator absorbed this fundamental unit of energy, the qubit and resonator became entangled quantum mechanically (i.e., quantum entanglement). This means that any change in the quantum state of one of them will be immediately cause a change in the state of the other.

Measurements of the vibrational energy showed that the results exactly followed the predictions of the quantum mechanics. The quantum level and the macro level, given the appropriate physical circumstances, follow the same natural laws. This one experiment may have put us one step closer to a unified theory of everything, the “holy grail” of physics.

KEX4 = -.3mc2

KE_X₄ = -.3mc²